Careers

Anthropology: Education for the 21st Century

Reasons why studying anthropology should be considered by undergraduate and master's students. 

• The material is intellectually exciting: anthropology students enthusiastically complete their courses of study.
• Anthropology prepares students for excellent jobs and opens doors to various career paths: the course of study provides global information and thinking skills critical to succeeding in the 21st century in business, research, teaching, advocacy, and public service.  

What Is Anthropology?

Anthropology is the study of human behavior. That exploration of what it means to be human ranges from the study of culture and social relations to human biology and evolution, to languages, to music, art and architecture, and to vestiges of human habitation. It considers such fascinating questions as how peoples' behavior changes over time, how people move about the world, why and how people from distant parts of the world and dissimilar cultures are different and the same, how the human species has evolved over millions of years, and how individuals understand and operate successfully in distinct cultural settings. Anthropology includes four broad fields--cultural anthropology, linguistics, physical anthropology and archaeology. Each of the four fields teaches distinctive skills, such as applying theories, employing research methodologies, formulating and testing hypotheses, and developing extensive sets of data.  

Anthropologists often specialize in one or more geographic areas of the world--for example, West Africa, Latin America, the British Isles, Eastern Europe, North America, and Oceania. In addition, anthropology studies focus on particular populations in a locale or region. Some anthropologists study cultural practices, such as Pyrennes' Basques use of cooperatives in their economic system, which must be modified to fit the overarching Spanish or French legal structures. Other examples of cultural practices studied by anthropologists include marriage rituals among Scots-Irish Americans in a suburban North Carolina community, Morris dancing on May Day among southwestern English village inhabitants, and aesthetic and linguistic aspects of Trinidadian calypso and "road songs." Biological anthropologists observe biological behavior, attempting to understand ongoing human evolution and the human adaptations to particular environments, such as maternal physiological response to pregnancy, the effects of altitude on maternal and fetal well-being, perhaps performing comparative studies of physiological responses to short-term high altitude residence (e.g., Euro-Americans and African Americans in Colorado) versus longer-term high altitude residence (e.g., indigenous Quechua-speakers in Peru or Sherpas in Nepal). Historical archaeologists help preserve aspects of the recent past, such as settlement patterns in the western U.S. plains. Archaeological studies generally involve teams of specialists who work with domesticated plant remains, indicators of animal life, and the manmade artifacts produced or imported into a particular area. 
 
Anthropologists are careful observers of humans and their behavior, maintaining an intense curiosity: What does it mean to be human? Why do people behave in particular ways? What are the historical and environmental pressures that helped shape the experience and behavior of a specific group of people? What are universal facts of human life? 
 

Anthropology Outside the College Setting

Careful record-keeping, attention to details, analytical reading, and clear thinking are taught by anthropological courses. Social ease in strange situations, critical thinking, and strong skills in oral and written expression are cultivated by anthropological training. Using a range of social, behavioral, biological, and other scientific research methods, anthropology majors learn to supplement statistical findings with descriptive data gathered through participant observation, interviewing, and ethnographic study. An anthropologist is a trained observer who knows the importance of collecting data, in listening and watching what others are doing, in reflecting on what has actually as well as apparently occurred, in researching the context, in applying various explanatory models, and in adopting a broad perspective for framing an understanding. Whatever the topic of research, anthropologists share a particular holistic vision that requires using a repertoire of methods in order to forge a deeper understanding of situations. This holism characterizes the best anthropology and imparts the perspective for which the profession is valued.  

While the job market for academic anthropologists is relatively steady, demand for anthropologists is increasing in other areas, stimulated by a growing need for analysts and researchers with sharp thinking skills who can manage, evaluate, and interpret the large volume of data on human behavior. The extent of occupational flexibility reflects the emphasis on breadth, diversity, and independence of thought. What we know about the future marketplace indicates the type of global, holistic knowledge which an anthropological perspective brings.  

After Graduation

There are many career and educational options for anthropology majors. Further anthropological study leads to both traditional anthropological careers of teaching and research as well as in applied anthropology. Academic anthropologists find careers in anthropology departments, social science departments, and a variety of other departments or programs, such as medicine, epidemiology, public health, ethnic, community or area studies, linguistics, cognitive psychology, and neural science.  

Applying anthropology offers many opportunities to use anthropological perspectives and skills. Jobs filled by anthropology majors include researchers, evaluators, and administrators. Cultural anthropologists have the range of careers filled by other social scientists; biological and medical anthropologists have other skills which are useful in the growing sector of health related occupations. Many archaeologists are employed in American cultural resource management projects which are required by federal and state laws before major building ventures.  

Further study in graduate or professional school are common paths for anthropology undergraduate majors. Anthropology provides a strong basis for subsequent graduate level education and training in international law, public health, and other areas as well as the social sciences.  

Find More About Career Options at the American Anthropological Association

Job Opportunities

Job opportunities are generally forged by the individual, not by the program which one follows in college. The best college program encourages the performance skills which anthropology excels in molding in its students. The prudent undergraduate will take a well-rounded course of study, with a few practical career-skill courses interwoven in her or his overall program. Anthropology provides a good counterpoint to business courses, foreign language study, technical training, fine arts, and so forth. In addition to imparting invaluable core knowledge about the human animal and its cultural and biological history, anthropology lends itself flexibly as a tool to refine whatever other interests one brings to the higher-educational process.

Anthropological study provides training particularly well suited to the 21st century. The economy will be increasingly international; workforces and markets, increasingly diverse; participatory management and decision making, increasingly important; communication skills, increasingly in demand. Anthropology is the only contemporary discipline that approaches human questions from historical, biological, linguistic, and cultural perspectives. The intellectual excitement and relevance of the wide range of information presented in anthropology assures that students are engaged and challenged. Moreover, it complements other scientific and liberal arts courses by helping students understand the interconnectivity of knowledge about people and their cultures. Increasingly, undergraduate and master's students are coming to understand that the issues affecting their futures and the information they will need to prosper cannot be found in narrow programs of study.

The undergraduate anthropology major will be exposed to archaeology, biological anthropology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology. They learn how to study people and how communities and organizations work. The master's degree candidate receives additional training in how to combine these perspectives and skills to solve problems. Many undergraduates have difficulty selecting their major, changing their minds several times as they search for a course of study which interests them and can lead to post college employment. That search sometimes results in costly extra years of study. The undergraduates choosing to major in anthropology can be comfortable that their choice is both exciting and practical.  

Career Paths: Academic, Corporate, Nonprofit, or Government
Most of America's professional anthropologists have traditionally worked in higher educational institutions, teaching and researching, but today there are many other career options for trained anthropologists. Many anthropologists with master's degrees or bachelor's degrees work for contract archaeology firms at archaeological sites, in physical anthropology laboratories, and in museums in a wide range of areas. Similarly, there are many opportunities as social science researchers and in other areas available to anthropologists at every level of training. A doctorate is required for most academic jobs. The nonacademic employment of cultural anthropologists is greatly expanding as the demand for research on humans and their behavior increases. Since 1985, over half of all new PhDs in anthropology have taken nonacademic positions in research institutes, nonprofit associations, government agencies, world organizations, and private corporations. While the job market for academic anthropologists is relatively steady, demand for anthropologists is increasing in other areas, stimulated by a growing need for analysts and researchers with sharp thinking skills who can manage, evaluate and interpret the large volume of data on human behavior.  

Academic
On campuses, in departments of anthropology, and in research laboratories, anthropologists teach and conduct research. They spend a great deal of time preparing for classes, writing lectures, grading papers, working with individual students, composing scholarly articles, and writing longer monographs and books. A number of academic anthropologists find careers in other departments or university programs, such as schools of medicine, epidemiology, public health, ethnic studies, cultural studies, community or area studies, linguistics, education, ecology, cognitive psychology and neural science.

Corporations, Nonprofit organizations, Non-Governmental Organizations, and Federal, State and Local Government
Anthropology offers many lucrative applications of anthropological knowledge in a variety of occupational settings, in both the public and private sectors. Non-governmental organizations, such as international health organizations and development banks employ anthropologists to help design and implement a wide variety of programs, worldwide and nationwide. State and local governmental organizations use anthropologists in planning, research and managerial capacities. Many corporations look explicitly for anthropologists, recognizing the utility of their perspective on a corporate team. Contract archaeology has been a growth occupation with state and federal legislative mandates to assess cultural resources affected by government funded projects. Forensic anthropologists, in careers glamorized by Hollywood and popular novels, not only work with police departments to help identify mysterious or unknown remains but work in university and museum settings. A corporate anthropologist working in market research might conduct targeted focus groups to examine consumer preference patterns not readily apparent through statistical or survey methods.

Anthropologists fill the range of career niches occupied by other social scientists in corporations, government, nonprofit corporations, and various trade and business settings. Most jobs filled by anthropologists don't mention the word anthropologist in the job announcement; such positions are broadly defined to attract researchers, evaluators and project managers. Anthropologists' unique training and perspective enable them to compete successfully for these jobs. Whatever anthropologists' titles, their research and analysis skills lead to a wide variety of career options, ranging from the oddly fascinating to the routinely bureaucratic.

Educational Program

Anthropology is not a large discipline. There are about 15,000 active anthropologists. About 6,000 bachelor's degrees were awarded in anthropology in 1995 and many of those degree holders use their anthropological training in their post collegiate experiences, both in further education and in the world of work. Approximately 1,000 master's degrees and 400 doctorates were awarded through American universities that year.

The time needed to obtain a master's degree is two years and the PhD is approximately eight years. The lengthy time required for an anthropology master's and doctorate is due in part to the custom of completing a field project for the thesis or dissertation and mastering several bodies of knowledge about the area, including comprehensive language training, before departing for the field site. The field research is generally several months for the master's student and 12 to 30 months for the doctoral student.  

High school students interested in a career in anthropology should develop a firm background in social studies and history, math, science, biology and languages, both English and foreign.

Career Advantages

Diversity
Anthropology is a career that embraces people of all kinds. It is a discipline that thrives with heterogeneity--in people, ideas and research methods. Anthropologists know the wisdom of listening to multiple voices and linking the work coming from researchers who bring different backgrounds and apply various approaches to their endeavors. The American Anthropological Association is committed to increasing the diversity of the profession.

Biological Anthropology - Exciting and Rewarding

A profession that is stimulating and satisfying can make an individual's life an extremely enriching experience. Several things make the lives of professional biological anthropologists very exciting.

• The enjoyment of scientific research, with endless questions to be answered and discoveries to be made.
• The opportunity to write and communicate the findings of your research to audiences of all kinds and all ages.
• Teaching, while hard work, is very rewarding, students provide a constant source of stimulation.
• Most biological anthropologists do research in what is called "the field," outside of the conventional laboratory. Field research can take place in relatively exotic places such as Latin America, Africa, and the Pacific, or in hospitals and zoological parks, for example--anywhere an interesting biological problem has been identified. 

Academic Positions

There are many academic careers for appropriately trained biological anthropologists. At colleges and universities, they can be found in departments of anthropology, anatomy, biological sciences, human biology, zoology, and in medical school departments, and also in combined departments of anthropology & geography, sociology & anthropology, or social sciences. Those who study primates are often in departments of biology or psychology or on the staffs of zoos or zoological research institutes. Human paleontologists may be employed in departments of paleontology, earth science, or geology, or as staff members of natural history museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Biological anthropologists who work with living peoples may work at medical schools, or be found in departments of anatomy, physiology, nutrition, or genetics, or programs of physical education and athletics. Community colleges and professional schools also offer employment.

Non-academic Positions

Applied Anthropometry
Wherever people need information about the size, shape, anatomy, and growth of the human body, there are job opportunities for biological anthropologists. In the private sector, such jobs can be found in the automotive and aerospace industries, with private consulting firms and with engineers and designers. The more broadly trained one is, the easier it is to work with them. Above all, the biological anthropologist must be thoroughly grounded in the biological and life sciences early in their training.  

In the public sector, job openings in applied anthropometry are concentrated in the military. Appropriate preparation for these jobs involves graduate training in such disciplines as anatomy, genetics, nutrition, biomechanics, kinesiology, and biostatistics. Prior experience doing anthropometry of living subjects is most advantageous. In addition to measurement experience, an individual seeking a career in public sector applied 
anthropometry could greatly enhance his/her employment opportunities with a sound working knowledge of statistics.  

Museums
Museums of natural history, anthropology, archaeology, and science & technology offer employment opportunities for biological anthropologists. There are over 700 such institutions in the United States alone.  
The classic position for a biological anthropologist is a museum curator. Curatorship’s at large research museums are much like professorships at major universities, and competition for such posts is correspondingly stiff. Training for curatorial positions is the same as for academic positions in the same area of specialization. However, computer literacy for collection management and museum studies is useful, if not necessary.  

Museums are very much involved with education. Biological anthropologists, with their perspective on humans in the natural world, human biology, and hominid evolution, can be very effective museum education officers and coordinators. They may also find positions in exhibit development, collection management, publications, and museum administration. Museum administration, particularly as director of a smaller institution, is an employment possibility that is overlooked by many young job aspirants. Museum studies background and especially practical training as an intern are invaluable aids in applying for such positions.  

Breadth of training is probably the key element in preparing for most museum positions in biological anthropology. Training in the natural sciences, especially anatomy, biology, geology, and paleontology for natural history museums, and in general anthropology for archaeology and anthropology museums, is essential.  

Zoos
To biological anthropologists trained in primate biology, zoological parks offer career opportunities under two main headings: collection management and captive breeding programs for endangered species. Training in the study of primate behavior is a useful preparation for both sorts of job. 

Staff positions for geneticists in zoos focus on the application of new technology (e.g., DNA fingerprinting) to the special problems of zoo populations or on the genetic management of small populations. A demonstrated awareness of the special problems of captive populations and experience in working on such problems are definite assets.  

Training in primate behavior has relevance to two main career areas: reproductive studies and improved mental health. Individuals with more advanced training will be stronger candidates for such employment. Regarding mental health, the utilization of behavioral expertise in identifying environmental sources of stress, in providing for relief from chronic under-stimulation, and in conditioning individuals for necessary handling routines are examples of ways in which the welfare of captive primates may be improved.  

Applicants for zoo positions need to have a broad zoological background, extending beyond the primates to encompass other mammalian and vertebrate groups. Graduate research experience with zoo populations is probably the best entry into the world of zoo research. The reality is that zoos need scientific approaches to animal management and propagation to a greater extent than most realize. Career opportunities can be enhanced by demonstrating the value of scientific approaches to these problems.  
 
Forensic Sciences
Forensic anthropologists use their knowledge of osteology and anatomy to make forensic determinations and identifications involving human remains. They find employment in the offices of medical examiners and coroners across the United States. They are also in demand as expert witnesses in the courtroom.  

The Army Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii has recently increased its staff of forensic anthropologists to aid in the identification of skeletal remains from Southeast Asia and the Pacific area. Non-academic positions for biological anthropologists trained in the forensic area are expanding. With population increases resulting in the rise of crime rates, the demand for biological anthropologists trained in human identification will also increase.  

In addition to graduate coursework in skeletal biology and human anatomy, students interested in non-academic careers as forensic anthropologists should also receive training in archaeology field methods, legal evidence, pathology, criminalistics, and forensic laboratory methods (radiography, photography, etc.). Supervised casework and participatory membership in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences are also import ant in terms of professional development. 

Epidemiology
Epidemiologists study disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in human populations. Biological anthropologists interested in non-academic careers in the field of epidemiology should have certain qualifications as a result of their graduate training. Quantification and measurement are central to careers in epidemiology. The ability to derive measurements, and record and analyze data should be a part of all training. Statistical, demographic and computer skills are also very helpful.  

One should also be able to uniquely contribute to identifying subgroups of people at risk for disease. Anthropological/population genetics makes an important contribution to epidemiology; molecular biology is also becoming an increasingly important area. Anthropometric, nutritional, physiological and psychosocial dimensions of disease are important in the identification of individuals and groups at high risk for disease.  

Training in analytical reasoning is especially useful in epidemiology for the critical review of the literature. Knowledge of research design, sampling procedures, and questionnaire development and administration are also important.  

Biological anthropologists should have many skills for careers in the field of epidemiology. Methodological skills are extremely important; specific courses in epidemiology, biostatistics, and research methods are especially helpful. In pursuing graduate school in biological /medical anthropology, such training should enhance career opportunities in both non-academic and academic settings.  

Teaching and research positions in medical schools and in schools of public health are also career options, as are positions in the public and private sectors. Positions in government are available at the local, state, federal and international levels. Private sector careers include consulting and positions in nursing homes and hospitals, to name a few.

General Information

• Most professional anthropological jobs require a graduate degree.
• As the demand for university/college faculty positions decreases, most openings will exist in consulting firms and government agencies. 
• To increase your employment opportunities with a bachelor’s degree, consider minoring or double majoring in another field such as sociology, business, urban planning, or public administration. 
• Anthropology provides a solid background for a variety of graduate programs including law, medicine, forensics, or genetic counseling. Research admissions requirements and take prerequisite courses. 
• Anthropology is good preparation for jobs that involve people skills and require an understanding of cultural differences. 
• Spend a summer in field school or travel and study other cultures. 
• Volunteer to help with a professor's research. 
• Gaining relevant work experience through internships, practicums, part-time jobs, or volunteer positions is critical. 

Resources

American Association of Biological Anthropologists  
Wisconsin National Primate Research Center
Smithsonian Institution Fellowships and Internships
The American Board of Forensic Anthropologists
Paleoanthropology Society
American Society of Primatologists
Graduate Programs in Biological Anthropology
 
Compiled from: “Careers in Biological Anthropology”
 c. 09/2022 

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever has."

- Margaret Mead, American anthropologist

Professional archaeologists work for:

• Universities, colleges, museums, the federal government, state governments, in private companies, and as consultants. 
• They teach, conduct field investigations, analyze artifacts and sites, and publish the results of their research. 
• The minimal educational requirement to work as a field archaeologist is a B.A. or B.S. degree with a major in anthropology or archaeology and previous field experience (usually obtained by spending a summer in an archaeological field school or participating as a volunteer. Supervisory positions require a graduate degree (M.A./M.S. or a Ph.D.)

Academic Positions

Academic institutions in the U.S. can be broadly divided into three groups:

• Universities (with graduate programs)
• Colleges (undergraduate programs leading to B.A./B.S. degrees)
• Community colleges (two year programs leading to Associates degrees)

A Ph.D. is required for faculty positions at colleges and universities. An M.A./M.S. is required for community college positions. Faculty teaching loads vary among these three groups. University faculty teach graduate courses, upper level undergraduate courses (for anthropology or archaeology majors), and introductory level courses. College faculty teach upper level undergraduate courses and introductory level courses. Community college faculty teach introductory level courses (and sometimes a few upper level courses). Requirements to obtain research funds and publish research results are highest in universities and lower in community colleges. Laboratory facilities are greater in universities than in community colleges. Most faculty positions are nine month appointments. During the summer, academic archaeologists conduct field research funded by grants or contracts, teach summer school, teach summer field schools, or work as private consultants. Research funds come from the archaeologist's school, from federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities, and from private foundations such as the National Geographic Society, Wenner- Gren, Earthwatch, and others. Within colleges and universities archaeologists are found in departments of anthropology, archaeology, art history, architecture, classics, history, and theology.

Non-academic Positions

Museums
Museums may be connected with a university or independent. Museum curators conduct research, publish the results, give public presentations, prepare displays, and conserve the museum collections. Museum positions require a graduate degree (M.A./M.S. or Ph.D.). Museum positions are usually full-year appointments.

State and Federal Government Positions
Many archaeologists work for the federal government. The U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have about 800 archaeologists among them. Many archaeologists also work for state government agencies. Every state has a State Historic Preservation Office with one or more archaeologists on staff. In addition, other archaeologists work in state parks departments, highway departments, and water resource departments. Some cities also hire archaeologists to handle local ordinances protecting archaeological sites. Federal and state laws that protect the environment include protection for important archaeological sites. As a result the government is involved in managing archaeological sites on federal and state lands (parks, forests, etc.). Construction projects often require archaeological surveys to locate prehistoric or historic sites and the excavation of some sites before construction can begin. Federal and state archaeologists are involved in making these decisions and supervising the archaeologists who perform the work. This kind of archaeology is called cultural resources management (CRM). Most government positions require an M.A. degree.

Private Sector
Archaeologists also work for firms that conduct the CRM investigations required by law. They may work for laboratories or centers within colleges and universities, for engineering and environmental companies, for companies specializing in archaeological investigations, or as private consultants. Positions in CRM work require an M.A. to have a supervisory role. Private sector archaeologists conduct archaeological surveys to locate prehistoric and historic sites. They also excavate significant sites prior to their destruction by construction activities. Private sector archaeologists work in the field, in the laboratory analyzing the results of their field investigations, in the office writing reports on those investigations and preparing proposals to conduct additional work. These organizations also hire field archaeologists as temporary staff to assist with the field investigations. Field positions usually require a B.A. degree and previous field experience in an archaeological field school.

Most non-teaching jobs in anthropology are in the areas of: archaeology, applied anthropology, public anthropology, environmental anthropology, and medical anthropology.

After Graduation

Anthropology graduates enter a variety of professions and their employability will no doubt increase as the world becomes ever more globalized.

Anthropology degree career choice
Ask people to picture an anthropologist and many will come up with someone like Bruce Parry who, in the BBC2 series Tribe, sampled life among indigenous peoples all over the world to study their cultures. As an anthropology graduate, you may be in a better position than many to be part of such an influential group.

While this in-at-the-deep-end approach to anthropology still exists, most graduates go on to careers that differ greatly from this stereotype (it is perhaps no surprise to discover Parry isn't actually a trained anthropologist). Indeed, the subject is so wide-ranging that you may only have touched upon this kind of research while at university.

Due to the broad nature of the topic, there is no obvious career path as there is with, say, law or accountancy. Graduates enter a variety of professions and their employability will no doubt increase as the world becomes ever more globalized.

Acquired Skills

Anthropology has been described as the most scientific of the humanities and the most humanistic of the sciences. Anthropology graduates also have high cultural awareness.

However, course contents will often vary between universities according to the biological or social focus of your degree. All will have equipped you with a set of analytical skills that may be applied to many different jobs.

"Careers where this knowledge is in demand include social and market research, government and international development," says Margaret Holbrough, a careers adviser at Graduate Prospects.

Of the anthropology graduates who left university in 2008, 51% were in employment after six months in a diverse range of careers such as advertising and sales (8%), business and finance (6%) and public or private sector management (12%). However, a large number were working in catering (15%) or in clerical roles (20%) – no doubt a reflection of the current scarcity of graduate-level jobs.

Anthropology graduates also commonly pursue careers in the civil service, conservation and heritage management. "Working for charities and museums, or lecturing, would also be potential options," adds Holbrough.

Postgraduate Study

Only a tiny proportion of graduates become anthropologists, as academics or researchers. However, a relatively high number of 2008 anthropology graduates did go on to further study (21%). Courses chosen by recent graduates include law, industrial relations, teaching, journalism, criminology and marketing.;

Some students go on to study for master's degrees in areas such as visual or medical anthropology, while others pursue related disciplines such as sociology and economics. Vocational courses such as counseling, health and social work are also popular.